Abstract
In-situ monitoring techniques for additive manufacturing are in high demand to help produce reliable parts. The structural integrity of these parts depends on both the presence of flaws and their microstructure. Ultrasonic Rayleigh waves have the potential to identify flaws and assess the local microstructure during directed energy deposition (DED) additive manufacturing processes, but the scattering associated with the surface roughness degrades the ultrasonic signal and must be understood to extract useful information. Herein, the microstructures and surface profiles of DED and wrought Ti–6Al–4V are compared to provide context for measured Rayleigh wave speeds and second harmonic generation. The Rayleigh wave speed and second harmonic generation for DED and wrought Ti–6Al–4V materials having comparable surface roughness are significantly different. The wave speed measured in DED material is 3% slower than in wrought material, and the relative nonlinearity parameter, commonly used to characterize second harmonic generation, is 3.5–6.0 times higher for polished surfaces. Wave speed and second harmonic generation measurements are also made along the hatch and across the hatch for both as-built and glazed DED surfaces. Based on our results, we conclude that in-situ Rayleigh wave linear and nonlinear measurements are possible; although we acknowledge that in-situ angle-beam transducer generation would be challenging, and thus we will investigate pulsed laser generation in future work.
Issue Section:
Research Papers
References
1.
2.
Tofail
, S. A. M.
, Koumoulos
, E. P.
, Bandyopadhyay
, A.
, Bose
, S.
, O’Donoghue
, L.
, and Charitidis
, C.
, 2018
, “Additive Manufacturing: Scientific and Technological Challenges, Market Uptake and Opportunities
,” Mater. Today
, 21
(1
), pp. 22
–37
. 3.
Kim
, H.
, Lin
, Y.
, and Tseng
, T.-L. B.
, 2018
, “A Review on Quality Control in Additive Manufacturing
,” Rapid Prototyp. J.
, 24
(3
), pp. 645
–669
. 4.
Brennan
, M. C.
, Keist
, J. S.
, and Palmer
, T. A.
, 2021
, “Defects in Metal Additive Manufacturing Processes
,” J. Mater. Eng. Perform.
, 30
(7
), pp. 4808
–4818
. 5.
Snow
, Z.
, Nassar
, A. R.
, and Reutzel
, E. W.
, 2020
, “Invited Review Article: Review of the Formation and Impact of Flaws in Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing
,” Addit. Manuf.
, 36
, p. 101457
. 6.
Sames
, W. J.
, List
, F. A.
, Pannala
, S.
, Dehoff
, R. R.
, and Babu
, S. S.
, 2016
, “The Metallurgy and Processing Science of Metal Additive Manufacturing
,” Int. Mater. Rev.
, 61
(5
), pp. 315
–360
. 7.
Trevisan
, R. E.
, Schwemmer
, D. D.
, and Olson
, D. L.
, 1990
, “Chap. 3 – The Fundamentals of Weld Metal Pore Formation,” Welding
, D. L.
Olson
, R.
Dixon
, and A. L.
Liby
, eds., Vol. 8
, pp. 79
–115
.8.
Khanzadeh
, M.
, Chowdhury
, S.
, Tschopp
, M. A.
, Doude
, H. R.
, Marufuzzaman
, M.
, and Bian
, L.
, 2019
, “In-Situ Monitoring of Melt Pool Images for Porosity Prediction in Directed Energy Deposition Processes
,” IISE Trans.
, 51
(5
), pp. 437
–455
. 9.
Vilaro
, T.
, Colin
, C.
, and Bartout
, J. D.
, 2011
, “As-Fabricated and Heat-Treated Microstructures of the Ti–6Al–4V Alloy Processed by Selective Laser Melting
,” Metall. Mater. Trans. A
, 42
(10
), pp. 3190
–3199
. 10.
Kim
, F. H.
, and Moylan
, S. P.
, 2018
, Literature Review of Metal Additive Manufacturing Defects
, NIST AMS
, Gaithersburg, MD
, pp. 100
–116
.11.
Zekovic
, S.
, Dwivedi
, R.
, and Kovacevic
, R.
, 2007
, “Numerical Simulation and Experimental Investigation of Gas–Powder Flow From Radially Symmetrical Nozzles in Laser-Based Direct Metal Deposition
,” Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf.
, 47
(1
), pp. 112
–123
. 12.
Stutzman
, C. B.
, Nassar
, A. R.
, and Reutzel
, E. W.
, 2018
, “Multi-Sensor Investigations of Optical Emissions and Their Relations to Directed Energy Deposition Processes and Quality
,” Addit. Manuf.
, 21
, pp. 333
–339
. 13.
DebRoy
, T.
, Wei
, H. L.
, Zuback
, J. S.
, Mukherjee
, T.
, Elmer
, J. W.
, Milewski
, J. O.
, Beese
, A. M.
, Wilson-Heid
, A.
, De
, A.
, and Zhang
, W.
, 2018
, “Additive Manufacturing of Metallic Components—Process, Structure and Properties
,” Prog. Mater. Sci.
, 92
, pp. 112
–224
. 14.
Gorelik
, M.
, 2017
, “Additive Manufacturing in the Context of Structural Integrity
,” Int. J. Fatigue
, 94
, pp. 168
–177
. 15.
Galindo-Fernández
, M. A.
, Mumtaz
, K.
, Rivera-Díaz-del-Castillo
, P. E. J.
, Galindo-Nava
, E. I.
, and Ghadbeigi
, H.
, 2018
, “A Microstructure Sensitive Model for Deformation of Ti–6Al–4V Describing Cast-and-Wrought and Additive Manufacturing Morphologies
,” Mater. Des.
, 160
, pp. 350
–362
. 16.
Gong
, H.
, Rafi
, K.
, Gu
, H.
, Starr
, T.
, and Stucker
, B.
, 2014
, “Analysis of Defect Generation in Ti–6Al–4V Parts Made Using Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing Processes
,” Addit. Manuf.
, 1
, pp. 87
–98
. 17.
Malekipour
, E.
, and El-Mounayri
, H.
, 2018
, “Common Defects and Contributing Parameters in Powder Bed Fusion AM Process and Their Classification for Online Monitoring and Control: A Review
,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol.
, 95
(1–4
), pp. 527
–550
. 18.
Reutzel
, E. W.
, and Nassar
, A. R.
, 2015
, “A Survey of Sensing and Control Systems for Machine and Process Monitoring of Directed-Energy, Metal-Based Additive Manufacturing
,” Rapid Prototyp. J.
, 21
(2
), pp. 159
–167
. 19.
Boddu
, M. R.
, Landers
, R. G.
, and Liou
, F. W.
, 2001
, “Control of Laser Cladding for Rapid Prototyping—A Review
,” Proceedings of the 2001 International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium
, Austin, TX
, Aug. 6–8
, pp. 460
–467
.20.
Everton
, S. K.
, Hirsch
, M.
, Stravroulakis
, P.
, Leach
, R. K.
, and Clare
, A. T.
, 2016
, “Review of In-Situ Process Monitoring and In-Situ Metrology for Metal Additive Manufacturing
,” Mater. Des.
, 95
, pp. 431
–445
. 21.
Tapia
, G.
, and Elwany
, A.
, 2014
, “A Review on Process Monitoring and Control in Metal-Based Additive Manufacturing
,” ASME J. Manuf. Sci. Eng.
, 136
(6
), p. 060801
. 22.
Bi
, G.
, Schürmann
, B.
, Gasser
, A.
, Wissenbach
, K.
, and Poprawe
, R.
, 2007
, “Development and Qualification of a Novel Laser-Cladding Head With Integrated Sensors
,” Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf.
, 47
(3–4
), pp. 555
–561
. 23.
Hofman
, J. T.
, Pathiraj
, B.
, van Dijk
, J.
, de Lange
, D. F.
, and Meijer
, J.
, 2012
, “A Camera Based Feedback Control Strategy for the Laser Cladding Process
,” J. Mater. Process. Technol.
, 212
(11
), pp. 2455
–2462
. 24.
Bi
, G.
, Gasser
, A.
, Wissenbach
, K.
, Drenker
, A.
, and Poprawe
, R.
, 2006
, “Identification and Qualification of Temperature Signal for Monitoring and Control in Laser Cladding
,” Opt. Lasers Eng.
, 44
(12
), pp. 1348
–1359
. 25.
Song
, L.
, and Mazumder
, J.
, 2011
, “Feedback Control of Melt Pool Temperature During Laser Cladding Process
,” IEEE Trans. Control Syst. Technol.
, 19
(6
), pp. 1349
–1356
. 26.
Fathi
, A.
, Khajepour
, A.
, Toyserkani
, E.
, and Durali
, M.
, 2007
, “Clad Height Control in Laser Solid Freeform Fabrication Using a Feedforward PID Controller
,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol.
, 35
(3–4
), pp. 280
–292
. 27.
Zeinali
, M.
, and Khajepour
, A.
, 2010
, “Height Control in Laser Cladding Using Adaptive Sliding Mode Technique: Theory and Experiment
,” ASME J. Manuf. Sci. Eng.
, 132
(4
), p. 041016
. 28.
Heralić
, A.
, Christiansson
, A.-K.
, and Lennartson
, B.
, 2012
, “Height Control of Laser Metal-Wire Deposition Based on Iterative Learning Control and 3D Scanning
,” Opt. Lasers Eng.
, 50
(9
), pp. 1230
–1241
. 29.
Song
, L.
, and Mazumder
, J.
, 2012
, “Real Time Cr Measurement Using Optical Emission Spectroscopy During Direct Metal Deposition Process
,” IEEE Sens. J.
, 12
(5
), pp. 958
–964
. 30.
Honarvar
, F.
, and Varvani-Farahani
, A.
, 2020
, “A Review of Ultrasonic Testing Applications in Additive Manufacturing: Defect Evaluation, Material Characterization, and Process Control
,” Ultrasonics
, 108
, p. 106227
. 31.
Rieder
, H.
, Spies
, M.
, Bamberg
, J.
, and Henkel
, B.
, 2016
, “On-and Offline Ultrasonic Characterization of Components Built by SLM Additive Manufacturing
,” Proceedings of the AIP Conference Proceedings
, Minneapolis, MN
, July 26–31, 2015
, AIP Publishing LLC
, Vol. 1706, p. 130002
.32.
Nagy
, P. B.
, 1998
, “Fatigue Damage Assessment by Nonlinear Ultrasonic Materials Characterization
,” Ultrasonics
, 36
(1–5
), pp. 375
–381
. 33.
Walker
, S. V.
, Kim
, J. Y.
, Qu
, J.
, and Jacobs
, L. J.
, 2012
, “Fatigue Damage Evaluation in A36 Steel Using Nonlinear Rayleigh Surface Waves
,” NDT E Int.
, 48
, pp. 10
–15
. 34.
Matlack
, K. H.
, Bradley
, H. A.
, Thiele
, S.
, Kim
, J.-Y.
, Wall
, J. J.
, Jung
, H. J.
, Qu
, J.
, and Jacobs
, L. J.
, 2015
, “Nonlinear Ultrasonic Characterization of Precipitation in 17-4PH Stainless Steel
,” NDT E Int.
, 71
, pp. 8
–15
. 35.
Doerr
, C.
, Kim
, J. Y.
, Singh
, P.
, Wall
, J. J.
, and Jacobs
, L. J.
, 2017
, “Evaluation of Sensitization in Stainless Steel 304 and 304L Using Nonlinear Rayleigh Waves
,” NDT E Int.
, 88
, pp. 17
–23
. 36.
Jhang
, K.-Y.
, Lissenden
, C. J.
, Solodov
, I.
, Ohara
, Y.
, and Gusev
, V.
, 2020
, Measurement of Nonlinear Ultrasonic Characteristics; Springer Series in Measurement Science and Technology
, Springer
, Singapore
.37.
Millon
, C.
, Vanhoye
, A.
, Obaton
, A.-F.
, and Penot
, J.-D.
, 2018
, “Development of Laser Ultrasonics Inspection for Online Monitoring of Additive Manufacturing
,” Weld. World
, 62
(3
), pp. 653
–661
. 38.
Cerniglia
, D.
, Scafidi
, M.
, Pantano
, A.
, and Rudlin
, J.
, 2015
, “Inspection of Additive-Manufactured Layered Components
,” Ultrasonics
, 62
, pp. 292
–298
. 39.
Pieris
, D.
, Stratoudaki
, T.
, Javadi
, Y.
, Lukacs
, P.
, Catchpole-Smith
, S.
, Wilcox
, P. D.
, Clare
, A.
, and Clark
, M.
, 2019
, “Laser Induced Phased Arrays (LIPA) to Detect Nested Features in Additively Manufactured Components
,” Mater. Des.
, 187
, p. 108412
. 40.
Davis
, G.
, Nagarajah
, R.
, Palanisamy
, S.
, Rashid
, R. A. R.
, Rajagopal
, P.
, and Balasubramaniam
, K.
, 2019
, “Laser Ultrasonic Inspection of Additive Manufactured Components
,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol.
, 102
(5–8
), pp. 2571
–2579
. 41.
Smith
, R. J.
, Hirsch
, M.
, Patel
, R.
, Li
, W.
, Clare
, A. T.
, and Sharples
, S. D.
, 2016
, “Spatially Resolved Acoustic Spectroscopy for Selective Laser Melting
,” J. Mater. Process. Technol.
, 236
, pp. 93
–102
. 42.
Dong
, Z.
, Liu
, Y.
, Wen
, W.
, Ge
, J.
, and Liang
, J.
, 2018
, “Effect of Hatch Spacing on Melt Pool and As-Built Quality During Selective Laser Melting of Stainless Steel: Modeling and Experimental Approaches
,” Materials
, 12
(1
), p. 50
. 43.
Maamoun
, A. H.
, Xue
, Y. F.
, Elbestawi
, M. A.
, and Veldhuis
, S. C.
, 2018
, “Effect of Selective Laser Melting Process Parameters on the Quality of Al Alloy Parts: Powder Characterization, Density, Surface Roughness, and Dimensional Accuracy
,” Materials
, 11
(12
), p. 2343
. 44.
Foster
, S.
, Carver
, K.
, Dinwiddie
, R.
, List
, F.
, Unocic
, K.
, Chaudhary
, A.
, and Babu
, S.
, 2018
, “Process-Defect-Structure-Property Correlations During Laser Powder Bed Fusion of Alloy 718: Role of In Situ and Ex Situ Characterizations
,” Metall. Mater. Trans. A
, 49
(11
), pp. 5775
–5798
. 45.
Yasa
, E.
, and Kruth
, J.-P.
, 2011
, “Application of Laser Re-melting on Selective Laser Melting Parts
,” Adv. Prod. Eng. Manag.
, 6
(4
), pp. 259
–270
. 46.
Alrbaey
, K.
, Wimpenny
, D.
, Tosi
, R.
, Manning
, W.
, and Moroz
, A.
, 2014
, “On Optimization of Surface Roughness of Selective Laser Melted Stainless Steel Parts: A Statistical Study
,” J. Mater. Eng. Perform.
, 23
(6
), pp. 2139
–2148
. 47.
Rombouts
, M.
, Maes
, G.
, Hendrix
, W.
, Delarbre
, E.
, and Motmans
, F.
, 2013
, “Surface Finish After Laser Metal Deposition
,” Phys. Procedia
, 41
, pp. 810
–814
. 48.
Alfieri
, V.
, Argenio
, P.
, Caiazzo
, F.
, and Sergi
, V.
, 2016
, “Reduction of Surface Roughness by Means of Laser Processing Over Additive Manufacturing Metal Parts
,” Materials
, 10
(1
), p. 30
. 49.
Nečas
, D.
, and Klapetek
, P.
, 2012
, “Gwyddion: An Open-Source Software for SPM Data Analysis
,” Open Phys.
, 10
(1
), pp. 181
–188
. 50.
Bakre
, C.
, and Lissenden
, C. J.
, 2021
, “Surface Roughness Effects on Self-Interacting and Mutually Interacting Rayleigh Waves
,” Sensors
, 21
(16
), p. 5495
. 51.
Frigo
, M.
, and Johnson
, S. G.
, “. FFTW: An Adaptive Software Architecture for the FFT
,” Proceedings of the 1998 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing, ICASSP ‘98 (Cat. No.98CH36181)
, Seattle, WA
, May 12–15
, IEEE
; Vol. 3, pp. 1381
–1384
.52.
Krylov
, V.
, and Smirnova
, Z.
, 1990
, “Experimental Study of the Dispersion of a Rayleigh Wave on a Rough Surface
,” Sov. Phys. Acoust.
, 36
(6
), pp. 583
–585
. https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/account/articles/922559053.
Eguiluz
, A. G.
, and Maradudin
, A. A.
, 1983
, “Frequency Shift and Attenuation Length of a Rayleigh Wave Due to Surface Roughness
,” Phys. Rev. B
, 28
(2
), pp. 728
–747
. 54.
De Billy
, M.
, Quentin
, G.
, and Baron
, E.
, 1987
, “Attenuation Measurements of an Ultrasonic Rayleigh Wave Propagating Along Rough Surfaces
,” J. Appl. Phys.
, 61
(6
), pp. 2140
–2145
. 55.
Sinclair
, R.
, 1971
, “Velocity Dispersion of Rayleigh Waves Propagating Along Rough Surfaces
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
, 50
(3B
), pp. 841
–845
. 56.
Akhtar
, A.
, and Teghtsoonian
, E.
, 1975
, “Prismatic Slip in α-Titanium Single Crystals
,” Metall. Trans. A
, 6
(12
), p. 2201
. 57.
Justinger
, H.
, and Hirt
, G.
, 2009
, “Estimation of Grain Size and Grain Orientation Influence in Microforming Processes by Taylor Factor Considerations
,” J. Mater. Process. Technol.
, 209
(4
), pp. 2111
–2121
. 58.
Hikata
, A.
, and Elbaum
, C.
, 1966
, “Generation of Ultrasonic Second and Third Harmonics Due to Dislocations. I
,” Phys. Rev.
, 144
(2
), pp. 469
–477
. 59.
Cantrell
, J.
, 2003
, “Fundamentals and Applications of Nonlinear Ultrasonic Nondestructive Evaluation
,” Ultrasonic Nondestructive Evaluation
, T.
Kundu
, ed., CRC Press
, Boca Raton, FL
, pp. 363
–443
.60.
Gorsse
, S.
, Hutchinson
, C.
, Gouné
, M.
, and Banerjee
, R.
, 2017
, “Additive Manufacturing of Metals: A Brief Review of the Characteristic Microstructures and Properties of Steels, Ti–6Al–4V and High-Entropy Alloys
,” Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater.
, 18
(1
), pp. 584
–610
. 61.
Krakhmalev
, P.
, Fredriksson
, G.
, Yadroitsava
, I.
, Kazantseva
, N.
, Plessis
, A. d.
, and Yadroitsev
, I.
, 2016
, “Deformation Behavior and Microstructure of Ti6Al4V Manufactured by SLM
,” Phys. Procedia
, 83
, pp. 778
–788
. 62.
Prasad
, R.
, and Kumar
, S.
, 1994
, “Study of the Influence of Deformation and Thermal Treatment on the Ultrasonic Behaviour of Steel
,” J. Mater. Process. Technol.
, 42
(1
), pp. 51
–59
. 63.
Vasudevan
, M.
, Palanichamy
, P.
, and Venkadesan
, S.
, 1994
, “A Novel Technique for Characterizing Annealing Behaviour
,” Scr. Metall. Mater.
, 30
(11
), pp. 1479
–1483
. 64.
Palanichamy
, P.
, Joseph
, A.
, Jayakumar
, T.
, and Raj
, B.
, 1995
, “Ultrasonic Velocity Measurements for Estimation of Grain Size in Austenitic Stainless Steel
,” NDT E Int.
, 28
(3
), pp. 179
–185
. 65.
Papadakis
, E. P.
, 1970
, “Ultrasonic Attenuation and Velocity in SAE 52100 Steel Quenched From Various Temperatures
,” Metall. Trans.
, 1
(4
), pp. 1053
–1057
. 66.
Papadakis
, E. P.
, 1964
, “Ultrasonic Attenuation and Velocity in Three Transformation Products in Steel
,” J. Appl. Phys.
, 35
(5
), pp. 1474
–1482
. 67.
Gür
, C. H.
, and Tuncer
, B. O.
, 2005
, “Characterization of Microstructural Phases of Steels by Sound Velocity Measurement
,” Mater. Charact.
, 55
(2
), pp. 160
–166
. 68.
Karthik
, N.
, Gu
, H.
, Pal
, D.
, Starr
, T.
, and Stucker
, B.
, 2013
, “High Frequency Ultrasonic Non Destructive Evaluation of Additively Manufactured Components
,” 24th International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium
, Austin, TX, Aug. 12–14, pp. 311
–325
.69.
Hikata
, A.
, Chick
, B. B.
, and Elbaum
, C.
, 1965
, “Dislocation Contribution to the Second Harmonic Generation of Ultrasonic Waves
,” J. Appl. Phys.
, 36
(1
), pp. 229
–236
. 70.
Kim
, J.-Y.
, Jacobs
, L. J.
, Qu
, J.
, and Littles
, J. W.
, 2006
, “Experimental Characterization of Fatigue Damage in a Nickel-Base Superalloy Using Nonlinear Ultrasonic Waves
,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
, 120
(3
), pp. 1266
–1273
. 71.
Kim
, C.
, Hyun
, C.
, Park
, I.
, and Jhang
, K.
, 2012
, “Ultrasonic Characterization for Directional Coarsening in a Nickel-Based Superalloy During Creep Exposure
,” J. Nucl. Sci. Technol.
, 49
(4
), pp. 366
–372
. Copyright © 2022 by ASME
You do not currently have access to this content.
